Profiling of Consumer Perception and Acceptance of Indigenous Jamu Beverages

Abstract

Jamu is a traditional Indonesian herbal beverage widely consumed for its perceived health benefits; however, its broader acceptance is often constrained by intense sensory characteristics. This study investigated the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of five commonly consumed jamu beverages (wedang jahe, beras kencur, kunyit asam, temulawak, and pahitan) using an integrated sensory and consumer research approach. Commercial powdered jamu products were evaluated by 120 consumers familiar with jamu. Significant differences in consumer acceptance were observed among formulations (p < 0.05), with beras kencur and wedang jahe showing the highest liking, kunyit asam moderate acceptance, and temulawak and pahitan the lowest. Sensory characterization revealed a clear perceptual continuum across jamu beverages, ranging from sweet, refreshing, and spicy profiles to strongly bitter, herbal, and medicinal characteristics. Analysis of sensory intensity perception indicated that excessive bitterness and herbal intensity, as well as insufficient sweetness, were the primary contributors to reduced consumer liking. Furthermore, consumer responses to jamu were heterogeneous, with distinct acceptance patterns observed across different consumer groups. By linking sensory perception with consumer preference, this study provides scientifically grounded insights to support the development, reformulation, and targeted positioning of jamu beverages as modern functional drinks while preserving their traditional identity.

1. Introduction

Jamu is a traditional Indonesian herbal beverage system that has been consumed for centuries as part of daily health practices and cultural heritage. Prepared from combinations of roots, rhizomes, leaves, seeds, and spices, jamu is commonly associated with wellness maintenance, fatigue reduction, digestive support, and immune modulation [1]. Jamu has been recognized as a UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2022 [2]. Up to now, there has been no exact or officially established number of jamu variants in Indonesia, reflecting the highly diverse, localized, and continuously evolving nature of traditional formulations. Ethnobotanical and cultural sources have suggested that, when regional recipes and ingredient combinations are considered, the number of jamu variants could reach up to two million [3], whereas popular and educational compilations typically document only around 13–15 widely recognized jamu types that are commonly consumed across regions [4]. Among the wide diversity of jamu formulations, five preparations are particularly prominent and widely consumed: wedang jahe (ginger-based warming beverage), beras kencur (rice and aromatic ginger), kunyit asam (turmeric and tamarind), temulawak (Curcuma xanthorrhiza-based bitter tonic), and pahitan (a strongly bitter formulation composed of multiple bitter herbs) [4]. These beverages differ markedly in ingredient composition, sensory characteristics, and traditional health positioning, ranging from refreshing and palatable to intensely bitter and medicinal. Despite their long history, jamu beverages are increasingly being repositioned in modern contexts as functional drinks rather than solely traditional remedies [5,6].

Numerous studies have highlighted the potential health-related properties of jamu ingredients, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, digestive, and metabolic effects derived from bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, curcuminoids, and gingerols [7,8]. However, regular consumption of jamu remains inconsistent, particularly among younger and urban populations. One major barrier to broader acceptance is the perception and sensory profile of jamu beverages, which is often characterized by pronounced bitterness, strong herbal or medicinal aroma, astringency, and unfamiliar mouthfeel [9,10]. While these attributes are culturally accepted or even valued by habitual consumers, they frequently limit acceptance among consumers who prioritize palatability and refreshment. As a result, the transition of jamu from traditional medicine to widely accepted functional beverage remains challenged by sensory-related issues rather than by perceived health benefits alone [11].

Despite the growing interest in functional beverages and traditional herbal drinks, systematic sensory studies on jamu are relatively scarce in international literature. Existing research has predominantly focused on phytochemical composition, biological activity, or ethnobotanical aspects, while consumer sensory perception and acceptance have received limited scientific attention. In particular, no comprehensive study has simultaneously examined consumer liking, sensory descriptors, intensity optimization, and consumer segmentation across multiple jamu formulations using modern sensory methodologies. Without such information, efforts to reformulate or commercialize jamu beverages risk overlooking the key sensory drivers that determine consumer acceptance and rejection.

Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of five commonly consumed jamu beverages: wedang jahe, beras kencur, kunyit asam, temulawak, and pahitan using an integrated sensory approach. Consumer liking was evaluated using hedonic testing, sensory attributes were explored through Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) and correspondence analysis, and key attributes were further assessed using Just-About-Right (JAR) scaling and penalty analysis. It is noteworthy that this study was designed as a consumer-based sensory and acceptance study and did not involve descriptive sensory analysis using trained panelists. In addition, consumer segmentation based on liking patterns was performed to identify distinct acceptance profiles. By linking sensory perception with consumer preference, this study aims to provide scientifically grounded insights to support the development and modernization of jamu beverages while preserving their traditional identity.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Jamu Samples Preparation

Five commercial jamu beverages were used in this study in the form of powdered formulations packaged in individual sachets. The selected products represented five commonly consumed jamu types in Indonesia: wedang jahe, beras kencur, kunyit asam, temulawak, and pahitan. The products were selected based on market availability and widespread consumer familiarity. Detailed information on jamu descriptions, brand names, producers, and declared ingredient compositions is provided in

Table 1. Detailed information on commercial jamu beverages used in the study.

Jamu Type	Brand and Producer	Ingredients (as Written on Label)
Wedang jahe	Mustika Ratu, PT Mustika Ratu, Jakarta, Indonesia	Zingiber officinale rhizome extract (15%), natural sugar (85%)
Beras kencur	Sido Muncul, PT Sido Muncul, Semarang, Indonesia	Kaempferia galanga rhizome extract (25%), Oryza sativa (16%), Zingiber officinale rhizome extract (2%), Tamarindus indica pulp extract (2.4%), sugar, palm sugar, citric acid, salt.
Kunyit asam	Sido Muncul, PT Sido Muncul, Semarang, Indonesia	Curcuma domestica rhizome extract (20%), Tamarindus indica pulp extract (10%), citric acid, sucrose, salt.
Temulawak	Herbadrink, PT Konimex, Sukoharjo, Indonesia	Curcuma xanthorrhiza rhizome extract (26%), sugar, and other ingredients until 100%.
Pahitan	Paitan Resik, Perusahaan Jamu Ibu Tjipto, Tegal, Indonesia	Caesalpinia sappan Linn. (10%), Usnea barbata Fries. (10%), Curcumae rhizoma (15%), Andrographis paniculata Nees. (25%), Alstonia spectabilis R.Br. (35%), and other ingredients until 100%.

. All sachet products were stored under ambient conditions according to the manufacturers’ recommendations prior to sample preparation.

Each jamu beverage was prepared following the manufacturer’s instructions printed on the product packaging to reflect typical consumer preparation practices. Briefly, the contents of one sachet were dissolved in a specified volume of hot water, stirred until fully solubilized, and allowed to cool to a serving temperature of 30 °C suitable for sensory evaluation. All samples were prepared on the day of sensory evaluation, kept under controlled conditions prior to serving, and presented to panelists at room temperature in identical containers to ensure consistency across samples.

2.2. Sensory Evaluation

Sensory evaluation was conducted in a controlled environment under standardized conditions. Jamu samples were served in transparent cups labeled with random three-digit codes to prevent identification bias. The order of sample presentation was randomized across panelists to further reduce order effects. All samples were served at a controlled temperature of 30 °C, selected to reflect typical consumption conditions of jamu beverages, which are commonly consumed warm. This temperature also ensured consistent sensory evaluation while minimizing potential thermal effects on taste and aroma perception. Approximately equal serving volumes (40 mL) were provided for each sample. Drinking water was supplied for palate cleansing between samples. There was no time limit given for the panelists to complete their assessment.

2.2.1. Panel Recruitment

A total of 120 panelists participated in the sensory evaluation. Panelists were recruited from Bina Nusantara University (Jakarta, Indonesia) based on the following inclusion criteria: age ≥ 18 years, have consumed jamu beverage, and absence of self-reported taste or olfactory impairments. Demographic information, including gender, age group, education level, frequency of jamu consumption, and primary reason for jamu consumption, was collected using a structured questionnaire. Participation was voluntary and all participants have signed informed consent forms prior to participation.

2.2.2. Hedonic (Liking) Evaluation [12]

Consumer acceptance of the jamu beverages was assessed using a 9-point hedonic scale, where 1 corresponded to “dislike extremely” and 9 corresponded to “like extremely”. Overall liking was selected as the primary affective measure, as it reflects the integrated consumer response to appearance, aroma, taste, and mouthfeel. Each panelist was asked to evaluate all five jamu samples independently and recorded their overall liking score for each sample.

2.2.3. Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) and Profiling of Consumer Perception [13]

CATA methodology was used to characterize the sensory attributes of the jamu beverages based on consumer perception. During evaluation, panelists were provided with a predefined list of sensory and consumer perception descriptors. They were then asked to check all attributes they perceived as applicable to each jamu sample. Panelists were instructed that there was no limitation on the number of attributes that could be selected for a given sample and that attributes should be checked solely based on their immediate perception. The attribute list was developed to reflect sensory characteristics and perceptions commonly associated with jamu beverages and included bitterness, sourness, sweetness, astringency, herbal, earthy, spicy, medicinal, refreshing, healthy, and traditional. The terms “healthy” and “traditional” were added as consumer perception descriptors to reflects how consumers cognitively and affectively evaluate jamu in real consumption setting.

2.2.4. Just-About-Right (JAR) Evaluation and Penalty Analysis [14]

JAR evaluation was conducted to assess whether the intensity of selected key sensory attributes was perceived as optimal by consumers. Based on the relevance of attributes to product formulation and consumer acceptance, four attributes were selected for JAR analysis: bitterness, sweetness, spiciness, and herbal intensity. These attributes represent modifiable sensory dimensions commonly associated with consumer rejection or acceptance of jamu beverages. Participants rated each attribute using a three-point JAR scale consisting of “too weak”, “just-about-right (JAR)”, and “too strong”. JAR responses were expressed as percentages of consumers for each category and sample. To evaluate the impact of non-optimal attribute intensity on consumer liking, penalty analysis was performed by comparing the mean overall liking scores of consumers selecting the JAR category with those selecting the non-JAR categories. The resulting mean drop values were used to identify attributes and intensity deviations that contributed most strongly to decreases in consumer acceptance.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

All statistical analyses were conducted using XLSTAT 2023 software (Addinsoft, Paris, France). Hedonic data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA to assess differences in overall liking among jamu samples and among consumer clusters. CATA data were analyzed using Cochran’s Q test to evaluate attribute discrimination, followed by correspondence analysis to explore multivariate relationships between samples and sensory attributes. JAR data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and penalty analysis to quantify the effect of non-optimal attribute intensity on liking. Results were considered statistically significant at p < 0.05. Data are presented as means ± standard deviations unless otherwise stated. Graphical representations were generated to support interpretation of consumer perception, consumer segmentation, and drivers of acceptance.

Consumer segmentation was performed to identify distinct groups of consumers with similar liking patterns toward the jamu beverages. Hierarchical cluster analysis was applied to the individual overall liking scores using Euclidean distance as the dissimilarity measure and Ward’s aggregation method to minimize within-cluster variance. The optimal number of clusters was determined based on dendrogram inspection, changes in linkage distance (fusion levels), and the identification of distinct cluster separation. Practical considerations, including cluster interpretability and sufficient sample size within each cluster, were also taken into account to ensure meaningful consumer segmentation. Following cluster formation, mean overall liking scores were calculated for each jamu sample within each cluster. Differences in liking among clusters were evaluated using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post hoc test to identify significant pairwise differences (p < 0.05). Cluster profiles were visualized using mean liking plots to facilitate interpretation of consumer acceptance patterns and to relate cluster behavior to sensory characteristics identified through CATA and JAR analyses.

3. Results

3.1. Consumer Characteristics and Overall Liking of Jamu Beverages

A total of 120 consumers with prior experience consuming jamu participated in the sensory evaluation. The demographic characteristics of the respondents are summarized in

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of panelists participating in the sensory evaluation.

Demographic Variable	Category	Number of Panelists (n)	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male	54	45.0
	Female	66	55.0
Age (years)	18–25	38	31.7
	26–35	42	35.0
	36–45	26	21.7
	>45	14	11.6
Education level	High school	24	20.0
	Undergraduate	66	55.0
	Postgraduate	30	25.0
Jamu consumption frequency	≤1×/week	50	41.7
	1–3×/week	42	35.0
	≥4×/week	28	23.3
Primary reason for jamu consumption	Health-related	62	51.7
	Habit/tradition	30	25.0
	Taste	28	23.3

. The panel comprised a balanced gender distribution, with female participants representing a slight majority. Most respondents were young to middle-aged adults, and all participants reported at least occasional consumption of jamu. Health-related reasons constituted the primary motivation for consumption, followed by habit or tradition and sensory enjoyment. This demographic profile ensured that the sensory evaluation reflected perceptions of consumers familiar with jamu beverages.

Mean overall liking scores of the five jamu beverages are presented in

Table 3. Mean overall liking scores of jamu beverages evaluated using a 9-point hedonic scale. Different superscript letters indicate statistically significant differences among samples based on one-way Anova followed by Tukey’s HSD test (p < 0.05).

Sample	Overall Liking Score
Wedang jahe	7.05 ± 0.91 a
Beras kencur	7.22 ± 0.84 a
Kunyit asam	6.78 ± 0.89 b
Temulawak	5.52 ± 1.12 c
Pahitan	3.82 ± 1.19 d

. One-way analysis of variance revealed significant differences in overall liking among samples (p < 0.05). Beras kencur and wedang jahe achieved the highest liking scores and did not differ significantly from each other (p > 0.05), indicating comparable consumer acceptance. Kunyit asam showed intermediate liking scores, suggesting moderate acceptance among consumers. In contrast, temulawak and pahitan received significantly lower liking scores than the other formulations, with pahitan being the least liked. The wide range of liking scores observed among the five jamu beverages indicates substantial variability in consumer acceptance across formulations with differing sensory intensities.

3.2. Consumer Perception Profile of Jamu Beverages Using CATA and Correspondence Analysis

CATA citation frequencies for the evaluated sensory attributes are presented in

Table 4. CATA citation frequencies (%) and Cochran’s Q test results for sensory attributes of jamu beverages. The data were analyzed using Cochran’s Q test. Values represent the percentage of consumers (n = 120) selecting each attribute; multiple selections per consumer were allowed.

Attribute	Wedang Jahe	Beras Kencur	Kunyit Asam	Temulawak	Pahitan	Q Test (p)
Bitter	30	25	32	72	86	<0.001
Sour	22	28	76	30	18	<0.001
Sweet	26	78	62	28	14	<0.001
Astringent	10	15	22	60	75	<0.001
Herbal	42	48	52	82	86	<0.001
Earthy	20	25	24	68	72	<0.001
Spicy	82	58	32	36	26	<0.001
Medicinal	30	32	38	82	90	<0.001
Refreshing	62	55	72	24	10	<0.001
Healthy	72	68	75	85	92	<0.001
Traditional	65	70	62	72	78	<0.001

. Cochran’s Q test showed significant differences among jamu samples for all attributes (p < 0.001), demonstrating that consumers were able to clearly discriminate sensory characteristics across the five formulations. Attributes related to taste, aroma, and chemesthetic perception contributed to the observed differentiation. For example, wedang jahe showed high citation frequencies for spicy and refreshing attributes, while beras kencur was most frequently associated with sweetness and traditional characteristics. Kunyit asam was predominantly described as sour and refreshing, whereas temulawak and pahitan were characterized by high frequencies of bitter, herbal, medicinal, and astringent attributes.

Correspondence analysis (CA) was performed to visualize the multivariate relationships between jamu samples and sensory descriptors. The CA biplot (Figure 1) illustrates the positioning of samples and attributes along the first two dimensions, which together explained 86.1% of the total inertia (Dimension 1 accounting for 58.4% and Dimension 2 accounting for 27.7%). Dimension 1 represented a sensory continuum from palatable and refreshing jamu characterized by sweetness and spiciness to more intense jamu dominated by bitterness, herbal, and medicinal attributes, while Dimension 2 reflected differences related to freshness and acidity. The analysis revealed a clear separation between palatable jamu formulations (beras kencur and wedang jahe) and more intense formulations (temulawak and pahitan). Kunyit asam occupied an intermediate position, reflecting its mixed consumer perception profile combining sourness and refreshment with moderate bitterness. The CA results corroborate the CATA frequency data and provide a visual summary of the sensory landscape of the evaluated jamu beverages.

3.3. JAR Evaluation and Penalty Analysis of Key Sensory Attributes of Jamu Beverages

The JAR distribution for four key sensory attributes (bitterness, sweetness, spiciness, and herbal intensity) is shown in Figure 2. Considerable variation in JAR responses was observed across jamu samples and attributes. For bitterness, a large proportion of consumers rated temulawak and pahitan as “too strong,” whereas beras kencur, wedang jahe, and kunyit asam exhibited higher proportions of JAR responses. Sweetness was frequently perceived as “too weak” for temulawak and pahitan, while beras kencur showed the highest proportion of JAR responses for this attribute. In terms of spiciness, wedang jahe exhibited a relatively high proportion of “too strong” responses, whereas other samples were mainly rated as JAR or “too weak”. For herbal intensity, temulawak and pahitan again showed elevated “too strong” responses compared with the other formulations.

Penalty analysis results are summarized in

Table 5. Penalty analysis showing mean drop in overall liking associated with non-optimal sensory attributes of jamu beverages. Attributes affecting more than 20% of consumers and associated with a mean drop in liking greater than 1 point were considered practically significant.

Attribute	Non-JAR Condition	Mean Drop in Liking	Consumers Penalized (%)
Bitterness	Too strong	−2.1	42
Sweetness	Too weak	−1.6	38
Spiciness	Too strong	−1.2	25
Herbal intensity	Too strong	−1.4	30

. Excessive bitterness resulted in the greatest mean drop in overall liking (−2.1), affecting 42% of consumers. Insufficient sweetness was associated with a mean drop of −1.6, while excessive herbal intensity produced a mean drop of −1.4. Excessive spiciness caused a smaller, yet notable, reduction in liking (−1.2). These findings indicate that deviations from optimal intensity for bitterness, sweetness, and herbal intensity had the most pronounced negative impact on consumer acceptance of jamu beverages.

3.4. Consumer Segmentation Based on Overall Liking Patterns

Hierarchical cluster analysis based on individual overall liking scores identified three distinct consumer clusters (Figure 3A). Mean liking scores for each jamu beverage within each cluster are presented in Figure 3B. Statistical analysis revealed significant differences in overall liking among clusters for all jamu samples (p < 0.05), confirming that cluster membership was associated with distinct acceptance patterns.

Cluster 1 (“Rejectors”, n = 38, 31.7%) exhibited uniformly low liking scores across all jamu beverages, with particularly low acceptance of temulawak and pahitan. Cluster 2 (“Flavor-driven consumers”, n = 46, 38.3%) showed higher liking scores for beras kencur and kunyit asam, while displaying moderate acceptance of temulawak and pahitan. Cluster 3 (“Traditionalists”, n = 36, 30.0%) demonstrated the highest liking scores for wedang jahe, beras kencur, and kunyit asam, and showed greater tolerance toward bitter and herbal formulations compared with the other clusters. The distinct liking profiles observed across clusters highlight substantial heterogeneity in consumer responses to jamu beverages.

4. Discussion

The present study investigated the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of five commonly consumed jamu beverages using an integrated sensory approach that combined hedonic evaluation, CATA, JAR and penalty analysis, and consumer segmentation. Compared with existing jamu research that has predominantly emphasized ethnobotanical knowledge, phytochemical composition, and health-related effects [15,16,17], this study provides one of the first comprehensive, consumer-centered sensory analyses of multiple jamu formulations. By explicitly linking sensory perception with liking and acceptance patterns, the findings address a critical gap in understanding how traditional herbal beverages are experienced by contemporary consumers.

The five jamu formulations examined in this study represent distinct sensory and functional archetypes within Indonesian herbal beverages [4]. Wedang jahe is primarily composed of ginger (Zingiber officinale) and is traditionally consumed as a warming drink, characterized by pronounced spiciness, mild sweetness, and a refreshing aftertaste. Beras kencur combines rice (Oryza sativa) with aromatic ginger (Kaempferia galanga), resulting in a sweet, creamy, and mildly spicy beverage that is generally perceived as more palatable and approachable. Kunyit asam, formulated from turmeric (Curcuma longa) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica), is distinguished by its sour and refreshing profile, with moderate bitterness and acidity that contribute to its perceived lightness. In contrast, temulawak is prepared from Curcuma xanthorrhiza and exhibits a strong bitter, herbal, and medicinal sensory character, reflecting its traditional use as a digestive and liver tonic. Pahitan, typically composed of a blend of intensely bitter herbs, represents the most extreme sensory profile and consumer perception among jamu beverages, with dominant bitterness, astringency, and medicinal aroma that are traditionally associated with detoxification and metabolic balance. Together, these five formulations span a broad sensory continuum from palatable and refreshing to strongly bitter and medicinal, making them suitable models for investigating consumer perception and acceptance of jamu beverages.

Differences in overall liking among the five jamu formulations reflected their contrasting sensory intensities and traditional positioning. Beras kencur and wedang jahe achieved the highest liking scores, likely due to their relatively balanced sweetness and moderate spiciness, which align with consumer preferences for palatable and familiar beverage profiles. In contrast, temulawak and pahitan exhibited substantially lower acceptance, consistent with their pronounced bitterness, herbal intensity, and medicinal character. These findings support previous observations that bitterness and strong herbal notes act as major barriers to acceptance in functional and herbal beverages, particularly among consumers who are not habitual users [18,19].

CATA results demonstrated that consumers were able to clearly discriminate sensory attributes across jamu formulations, with all attributes showing significant differences among samples. The correspondence analysis further revealed a clear sensory continuum, separating palatable and refreshing jamu formulations from those characterized by bitterness and medicinal notes. This multivariate sensory mapping confirms that consumer perceptions of jamu are structured and systematic rather than vague or culturally opaque. Similar sensory tendencies have been reported in studies on traditional herbal teas, fermented drinks, and botanical beverages, where bitterness and herbal intensity consistently drive product differentiation [20,21].

JAR and penalty analyses provided critical insights into which sensory attributes most strongly influenced consumer liking. Excessive bitterness emerged as the most penalizing attribute, followed by insufficient sweetness and excessive herbal intensity. Although spiciness contributed to liking penalties in wedang jahe, its impact was comparatively smaller, suggesting that consumers tolerate chemesthetic sensations more readily than bitterness. This pattern aligns with prior research indicating that bitterness is more strongly associated with rejection than pungency or heat, particularly in beverage matrices [22,23]. These findings emphasize that bitterness modulation remains the primary challenge for improving jamu acceptance.

The penalty analysis results provide practical insights for product reformulation. Several attributes were shown to be associated with the largest mean drops in liking, particularly excessive bitterness and herbal intensity, as well as insufficient sweetness. These findings suggest that reducing the intensity of bitter and strongly herbal components, while enhancing sweetness or balancing flavor perception, may significantly improve consumer acceptance. From a formulation perspective, this could be achieved through adjustment of ingredient ratios, partial masking of bitter compounds, or incorporation of naturally sweet or flavor-modulating ingredients. Such targeted modifications may help optimize the sensory profile and consumer perception of jamu beverages while maintaining their functional and traditional characteristics.

The consumer segmentation analysis revealed substantial heterogeneity in jamu acceptance, underscoring the limitations of relying solely on mean liking scores. The identification of “Rejectors,” “Flavor-driven consumers,” and “Traditionalists” highlights that consumer responses to jamu are not uniform and are strongly influenced by familiarity and sensory tolerance. Notably, the Traditionalist cluster exhibited higher acceptance of bitter and medicinal jamu such as temulawak and pahitan, suggesting that repeated exposure and cultural familiarity may reduce sensory rejection. This observation is consistent with literature on acquired taste development, particularly for bitter foods and beverages such as coffee, tea, and certain functional drinks [24,25].

Although a majority of respondents reported consuming jamu primarily for health-related reasons, sensory attributes remained key drivers of liking and acceptance across samples. This suggests that perceived health benefits alone are insufficient to ensure consumer preference in the absence of acceptable sensory quality. Furthermore, differences observed among consumer clusters may partially reflect varying degrees of tolerance toward characteristic jamu flavors, such as bitterness and herbal intensity. Consumers with stronger health-oriented motivations may be more willing to accept less palatable sensory profiles, whereas those driven by taste are likely to prefer formulations with more balanced and pleasant attributes. These findings highlight the importance of considering both health motivation and sensory perception in the development and positioning of jamu beverages.

From a product development perspective, the integration of CATA, JAR, and cluster analyses provides actionable guidance for reformulating or positioning jamu beverages. For palatable formulations such as beras kencur and kunyit asam, maintaining sweetness balance and avoiding excessive bitterness appear critical for broad consumer appeal. In contrast, for more intense jamu such as temulawak and pahitan, targeted strategies, such as bitterness masking, sweetness enhancement, or segment-specific marketing, may be necessary rather than universal reformulation. These findings support the notion that traditional herbal beverages may benefit from differentiated product strategies rather than a one-size-fits-all approach [26,27].

The results also highlight the importance of considering sensory expectations when positioning jamu as modern functional beverages. While health-related motivations were prominent among respondents, sensory dissatisfaction—particularly bitterness and herbal intensity—can override perceived health benefits. This aligns with prior studies showing that health claims alone are insufficient to drive repeated consumption if sensory quality is compromised [28,29,30]. Therefore, successful modernization of jamu requires balancing traditional identity with sensory optimization that meets contemporary consumer expectations.

Overall, the findings of this study provide a sensory-driven framework for understanding jamu acceptance and offer a foundation for future research aimed at reformulation, product innovation, or targeted consumer communication. By elucidating the relationships between sensory attributes, liking, and consumer heterogeneity, this work contributes to bridging traditional herbal knowledge with modern sensory and consumer science.

Future studies should extend this work by investigating formulation-level strategies to optimize key sensory attributes identified as critical drivers of acceptance, particularly bitterness and herbal intensity, while maintaining the traditional character of jamu beverages. Longitudinal and repeated-exposure studies would be valuable to examine how familiarity and learning influence acceptance of bitter jamu, especially among less-experienced consumers. In addition, expanding sensory evaluation to include freshly prepared jamu and different product formats (e.g., ready-to-drink or low-sugar formulations) could provide broader insights into consumer perception. Integrating sensory data with chemical profiling of bioactive compounds and bitterness-related markers may further elucidate links between composition, sensory perception, and consumer response, supporting more evidence-based development of jamu as modern functional beverages.

5. Limitations

Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, the sensory evaluation was conducted using commercially available jamu products in powdered sachet form, which may differ in flavor intensity, complexity, and ingredient composition from freshly prepared or traditionally brewed jamu beverages. Processing steps such as drying, extraction, and formulation may alter the balance of volatile and non-volatile compounds, potentially resulting in modified sensory characteristics. Therefore, the findings may not fully represent all modes of jamu consumption encountered in domestic or traditional settings. Second, the use of commercial jamu products, particularly temulawak and pahitan, which may contain additional unspecified ingredients as indicated by the manufacturer. This limits the ability to directly attribute specific sensory characteristics to individual components, as the observed consumer perceptions likely result from complex interactions among multiple ingredients. Consequently, the interpretation of sensory differences for these formulations should be approached with caution, as the exact contribution of each component cannot be fully determined within the scope of this study. Third, although the panel consisted of consumers familiar with jamu, the demographic profile was skewed toward young and middle-aged adults recruited from university environments. While jamu is widely consumed across age groups in contemporary Indonesia, older consumers—who often have longer habitual exposure and may associate pronounced bitterness and herbal intensity with medicinal efficacy—were underrepresented. This demographic bias may have influenced acceptance patterns, particularly for strongly bitter formulations such as pahitan and temulawak, which could be perceived more positively by older or more traditional consumers. Fourth, the study did not explicitly control for differences in long-term jamu consumption frequency, cultural background, or health status, all of which may modulate sensory perception, health-related beliefs, and acceptance. Fifth, sensory characterization relied on a predefined list of attributes in the CATA and JAR tasks. Consequently, other potentially relevant dimensions such as aftertaste persistence, warming sensation duration, or nuanced mouthfeel attributes were not explored. Finally, the cross-sectional design captured consumer responses at a single time point and did not account for changes in acceptance that may occur with repeated exposure, learning, or increasing familiarity with bitter sensory profiles.

6. Conclusions

This study investigated the sensory characteristics and consumer acceptance of five commonly consumed jamu beverages (wedang jahe, beras kencur, kunyit asam, temulawak, and pahitan) using an integrated sensory approach. Hedonic evaluation demonstrated significant differences in consumer acceptance, with beras kencur and wedang jahe showing the highest liking, kunyit asam moderate liking, and temulawak and pahitan the lowest. These variations in acceptance can be primarily attributed to differences in formulation and resulting consumer perceptions. Beverages with sweeter, milder, and more familiar flavor characteristics (e.g., beras kencur and wedang jahe) were more readily accepted, whereas formulations characterized by strong bitterness and herbal intensity (e.g., temulawak and pahitan) showed lower acceptance, reflecting limited sensory tolerance among general consumers. In addition, differences in consumer familiarity and accessibility of these products may further contribute to variation in acceptance.

CATA and correspondence analysis revealed a structured sensory and perception continuum across jamu formulations, ranging from sweet, refreshing, and spicy attributes to strongly bitter, herbal, and medicinal characteristics. This mapping highlights how distinct sensory attributes define each formulation and explains the observed differences in consumer preference. Assessment of key sensory attributes using JAR scaling and penalty analysis identified excessive bitterness and herbal intensity, as well as insufficient sweetness, as the primary drivers of reduced consumer liking. Consumer segmentation further revealed heterogeneous acceptance patterns, indicating that responses to jamu are strongly influenced by sensory tolerance and familiarity. By linking formulation characteristics, sensory perception, and consumer preference, this study provides scientifically grounded insights to support the development, reformulation, and targeted positioning of jamu beverages in modern contexts while preserving their traditional identity.